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Understanding a Brief History of Gender Non-Conformity in Igbo Nigerian Culture


By Obinna Tony-Francis Ochem 

 

Modern Nigerian literature has recently begun to uncover what Western religions obscured regarding African gender expression (Elnaiem, 2021). This is not to suggest that there is no visible gender binary in Igbo culture; however, in the 21st century, the concept of gender in the traditional Igbo context challenges the norms presented by Abrahamic religions and Western culture.


Early Igbo literature, much like the works of Flora Nwapa and Buchi Emecheta, focused on the oppressed, particularly women, with a form of activism that aligned more with the textbook definition of gender equality and women’s rights than with the radical feminism of Western writers like Margaret Atwood or African counterparts like Nawal El Saadawi’s ‘Woman at Point Zero.’  

 

Ogbanje And Me 

 

In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe’s treatment of the Ogbanje (Ilechukwu, 2017) is literal, portraying it as a child who is born and repeatedly dies, echoing the Western belief that ‘Ogbanje’ is related to sickle cell anaemia. This interpretation likely stems from the fact that Achebe’s analysis serves as a backdrop in Things Fall Apart rather than a central theme. In contrast, Akwaeke Emezi’s The Death of Vivek Oji’ and the 2022 Nollywood film Sympathy (featuring Nkiru Sylvanus, Genevieve Nnaji, and Liz Benson) both acknowledge the existence of more than two genders within one body.


While Emezi’s work advocates for the positive inclusion of this concept in contemporary society, the film portrays it as a spiritual affliction requiring deliverance through Abrahamic religion. Ada, the main character, is an ‘Ogbanje,’ and Emezi explores the notion of being an Ogbanje - a deity in human form - which could be interpreted as a manifestation of psychosis (Cleveland Clinic, 2022) or schizophrenia.  

 

Growing up in South Eastern Nigeria till I was 12, Akwaeke’s exploration doesn’t seem far-fetched to me. I recall witnessing a young girl who believed she saw a python emerging from her mouth. Given that she was younger than me and I was under twelve at that time, it’s unlikely she was lying. She was taken to spiritual houses for deliverance, and to this day, I don’t know her whereabouts. The python, known as Idemili or Eke Mmili (python of the sea), is revered in Anambra and other parts of Igbo land. Emezi’s Freshwater serves as an acknowledgment of a god within human flesh.  

 

In the 2002 film Sympathy, the lead character, played by Nkiru Sylvanus, is a human visited by spiritual entities. Her grandmother had sought the help of a goddess to help her daughter conceive. In the end, as her granddaughter is spiritually disturbed, the grandmother sacrifices her own life. This story raises the argument that what exists beyond the human form isn’t necessarily related to gender, as the lead character in Sympathy is distinctly a girl/woman. Emezi’s Freshwater indeed argues for gender nonconformity; the character Ada, born a girl, is perceived as female by others despite identifying as a deity. 

 

In 2018, following the publication of Freshwater, the Michigan Daily reviewed the book, describing it as a portrayal of mental illness, with the main character plagued with a form of dissociative identity disorder. This portrayal contrasts with the 1970s figure Area Scatter, a pioneer of gender non-conformity in Nigerian popular culture (Nwankwo, 2019). Area Scatter challenged gender norms by returning after the civil war as an Igbo woman rather than a man, donning traditional women’s attire.


The phenomenon of gender non-conformity in Igbo culture extends beyond figures like Area Scatter, encompassing expressions such as Adanma’s masquerade drag, women marrying women, and women defying traditional norms to take chieftaincy titles, joining masquerade societies, wrestling, and more. 

 

In contrast, the Western gender binary (Kendall, 2023) heavily influenced by Abrahamic religions and their sacred texts, remains rigid and resistant to evolution. When change does occur, it’s often labeled as abnormal because it deviates from these religious teachings. Over time, Igbo tradition, including its religion and beliefs, has evolved. Central to these beliefs is Chukwu or Chineke, the creator god, alongside ‘Ala,’ the earth goddess who oversees all. Ala, as the goddess who sustains and harbours all, allows the land to flourish. Any form of abomination within the community is seen as a desecration of Ala, the land. 

 

A Brief Hidden History 

 

Area Scatter’s gender-defying return in the twentieth century marks a groundbreaking phenomenon in contemporary Nigerian queer popular culture. Although he emerged in the 1970s, his presence resonates in the present-day Imo state. After the civil war that devastated the Igbo people, he returned as an Igbo woman, with hair plaited, uli (indigo dye) applied, and adorned in traditional women’s apparel. In the 1970s, South-Eastern Nigeria was recovering from the civil war that had ravaged the region.


The ‘nwa boi’ apprenticeship system during this period, where Igbo boys were trained under older ones, eventually establishing their businesses. Amidst this, many sought education, with communities sending their brightest children abroad to study. The 1970s in Nigeria was not a time when Nigerians commonly wore local attire; rather, they emulated British fashion, with educated men and women wearing suits and children dressed in white-on-white shirts and shorts. 

 

Area Scatter expressed himself through music, although his gender expression is not documented. In Igbo culture, there are no gendered pronouns unless one explicitly refers to someone by their gender (man or woman), which can be considered impolite as saying ‘that man or woman.’ However, in terms of expression, Area Scatter was a woman. In the 21st century, music has become a significant medium for gender non-conformity. Sam Smith, the UK gender-bending R&B and pop star, publicly identified first as a gay man and later as non-binary.


Following Sam Smith, the closest representation of trans artists was Ethel Cain. Still, in many cultures, such as India’s hijra community, music has long been a medium for gender non-conforming individuals to express themselves. Without music, drag would not exist in queer culture. In 2024, Chappel Roan gained popularity as a Gen Z icon; although a woman, she is a lesbian, and many of her performances are adorned with drag elements. 

 

The Maiden Spirit 

 

The current Western understanding of gender expression is not entirely alien to Igbo culture. In Igbo society, the Adanma masquerade is seen as the maiden spirit, distinct from other masquerades like Ojionu, a spirit incarnate with a beak mouth, or Akakpu or Izaga, two opposite entities - one short and the other tall. Through my uncle, I learned that my grandmother was a part of this society despite its exclusivity to men. The exclusivity meant only men could lead and approach the shrine. Older women who were not initiated could get close but only as a group, cheering and clapping for the being. 

 

Unlike these spirit beings, Adanma is intended for entertainment and represents the maiden spirit, with its bold “feminine makeup” and facial mask highlighting its beauty, though men perform its gender presentation. In the face of resistance from radical feminists against drag, it is essential to recognise that drag has always been a part of Igbo culture. Igbo cultural dance involves waste movements and lower waist bends, requiring flexibility and strong knees.


The notion that ‘woke’ culture is a 21st-century invention is misguided; instead, it is a reactionary response by conservatives against what they perceive as threats to their values. Gender expression has long been a way for Igbo culture to navigate gender nonconformity, such as women marrying women. 

 

Growing up in the mid and late 2000s in South Eastern Nigeria, I had a female friend. I didn’t know she didn’t have a father until I was nearly ten when I began to understand the social dynamics around me. Her grandmother married her mother for her ‘hypothetical father’ after he passed away early, and their grandmother was allowed to marry within the culture. The woman performs the traditional rites, and a man from their kinsmen procreates with her. It could be different men as long as they are from the same kin. Igbo culture doesn’t believe in children being biological but rather cultural. This means the grandmother is the cultural custodian of the children because she paid their mother’s bride price. 

 

There have been instances in communal Igbo societies where women’s families return the bride price, making the children solely a woman’s own, especially in cases of domestic violence to the wife’s death. Igbo culture is heavily patriarchal, as seen in practices where, rather than divorcing, an Igbo woman finds another wife for her husband. Yet, Igbo culture also recognises the concept of female ownership of children, with the woman’s role as the bearer of children being paramount. The bride price is the sole determinant of the man’s ownership, which also symbolizes the patriarchal ownership of the woman.


The Nigerian legal system, having borrowed heavily from British colonial law, often conflicts with traditional Igbo concepts of child ownership, which are rooted in cultural rather than biological lineage. In the 21st century, Igbo women have increasingly defied gender binaries, taking on roles traditionally reserved for men, such as wrestling and breaking kola nuts. 

 

The ‘Chi’ That Never Dies 

 

Igbo culture, despite its clear delineation of male and female roles in the context of a man and woman, is not as rigid as the binaries presented by Western society. It allows for the exploration of spirit beings and those who do not conform to binary categories, such as those within the Osu caste system. In 2022, a Northern House of Representatives member attempted to introduce a bill titled: ‘A Bill for an Act to Amend Same Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Act, 2013 to Prohibit Cross Dressing; and for Related Matters (HB. 1938).’ The bill was ultimately rejected. This legislation was proposed despite the ambiguity of many Nigerian cultural outfits for males. The 21st-century Nigerian culture often seeks to impose Western culture branded as Nigerian. However, gender non-conformity in Igbo culture is an ancient practice preserved through oral traditions and cultural expressions. 


Akwaeke Emezi’s Freshwater offers a profound analysis of gender nonconformity, further explored in The Death of Vivek Oji, where the author nose-dives into the untold theme of reincarnation. While Chineke or Chukwu is the creator, ‘chi’ represents the guardian spirit that never dies. Igbo ontology believes that when the flesh dies on earth, the ‘chi’ doesn’t; rather, it continues wandering and seeking another flesh to inhabit. In The Death of Vivek Oji, Vivek’s body is inhabited by his grandmother, who died the same day he was born. While the Nnedi’s ‘chi.’ Vivek's grandmother occupied Vivek’s flesh, and in many cases, a ‘chi’ can go for many years without finding flesh to inhabit.  

 

In Igbo ontology, ‘chi’ is known as ‘mmuo,’ meaning spirit. It’s why there are still widely held beliefs that communities see the spirits of the deceased. Nnedi’s spirit, after living as a woman in the previous life, reincarnated and dwelt in a male’s body and was presented as a man portrayed by the author as a homosexual. 

 

Bibliography 


‘Cleveland Clinic’ (2022) Psychosis. Available at: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/23012-psychosis (Accessed: 7 November 2024) 


Elnaiem, M. (2021) The “Deviant” African Genders that Colonialism Condemned. JSTOR Daily. Available at: 


Ilechukwu, S. (2007) Ogbanje/abiku and cultural conceptualizations of psychopathology in Nigeria. Mental Health, 

Religion & Culture, 10(3), 239–255. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13694670600621795 


Kendall, E. (2023) Gender Binary. Health and Medicine. Available at: 

https://www.britannica.com/topic/genderbinary (Accessed: 7 November 2024) 


Nwankwo, J. (2019) The Gender Non-Conforming Spirit. Adda Stories. Available: 

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